Radcliffe Award 1947 MCQs | Pakistan Studies | PAKMCQs

Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a British lawyer, was chosen as the joint chairman for both the Punjab and Bengal Boundary Commissions. He was selected because he had no prior experience or connections in India, which was thought to make him impartial. The final boundary line drawn by him is known as the Radcliffe Line.

Sir Cyril Radcliffe was a prominent British lawyer who had never been to India before his appointment. His legal background was considered suitable for the judicial nature of the task of demarcating the border. This lack of familiarity with the subcontinent's geography and culture later became a point of major criticism.

The 3rd June Plan, also known as the Mountbatten Plan, explicitly laid out the procedure for partition. It proposed the division of the two largest and most populous provinces, Punjab and Bengal, based on contiguous majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims. This division was one of the most complex and tragic aspects of the partition.

Although the award was ready by August 12th, Lord Mountbatten decided to announce it after the independence of both Pakistan and India. The announcement was made on August 17, 1947, two days after the transfer of power. This delay is heavily criticized as it left millions uncertain about their nationality and safety.

The district of Gurdaspur had a slight Muslim majority. Its allocation to India was highly contentious as it provided India with a land route to the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. This decision is often cited as a key factor in the subsequent Kashmir dispute.

While the Gurdaspur and Batala tehsils had Muslim majorities, the Pathankot tehsil had a clear non-Muslim majority. The controversial decision was to award the entire district, including the Muslim-majority tehsils, to India. The argument was often centered around the strategic importance of Pathankot.

The headworks of canals that irrigated vast agricultural lands in West Punjab (Pakistan) were located at Madhopur on the Ravi River and Ferozepur on the Sutlej River. The allocation of these areas to India gave it control over the water supply to Pakistan, leading to the Canal Water Dispute shortly after independence.

Calcutta, the capital of Bengal, was a major economic hub with a large Muslim population, though they were a minority. The Muslim League argued that many of the scheduled castes (Dalits) and other marginalized groups would vote to join Pakistan for better economic prospects. However, this demand for a referendum was rejected.

Despite viewing the award as 'wrong, unjust, and perverse,' Quaid-e-Azam urged his nation to accept it. His pragmatic approach was based on the belief that as a new and sovereign nation, Pakistan must abide by the agreements it had entered into. He demonstrated statesmanship by avoiding immediate conflict over the issue.

The 3rd June Plan stipulated that the Sindh Legislative Assembly would vote to decide its future. On June 26, 1947, the assembly voted in favor of joining the new Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. This made Sindh the first full province to opt for Pakistan.

At the time, Balochistan did not have a fully-fledged legislative assembly like other provinces. The decision was therefore entrusted to the Shahi Jirga (a council of tribal chiefs) and the non-official members of the Quetta Municipality. Both bodies voted overwhelmingly to join Pakistan.

The NWFP had a Congress-led government under Dr. Khan Sahib, which opposed partition. To ascertain the will of the people, a referendum was held in July 1947. The Muslim League campaigned for joining Pakistan, while the ruling party boycotted the referendum, resulting in a massive vote in favor of Pakistan.

Quaid-e-Azam flew from Delhi to Karachi, the designated capital of the new state of Pakistan, on August 7, 1947. His arrival marked a symbolic and administrative shift, as preparations began for the formal transfer of power. Karachi was chosen as the capital due to its status as a major port and its distance from the volatile partition border.

The inaugural session of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan was held on August 11, 1947. In this historic session, Muhammad Ali Jinnah was unanimously elected as its President. It was on this occasion that he delivered his famous speech outlining his vision for Pakistan as a modern, tolerant state.

As the last Viceroy of a united India, Lord Mountbatten addressed the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan in Karachi on August 14, 1947. This was his final official act as Viceroy in the territory that was about to become Pakistan. His speech formally acknowledged the impending sovereignty of the new nation.

Upon Pakistan's creation on August 14, 1947, Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah assumed the office of Governor-General. This was a hugely symbolic choice, as the leader of the independence movement became the first head of state of the nation he had created. He held this position until his death in September 1948.

Radcliffe was given only about five weeks to complete the monumental task of partitioning two massive provinces. This extreme haste meant he had little time for detailed surveys or to fully consider the socio-economic consequences of the lines he drew. This rushed process is seen as a major contributor to the chaos and violence of partition.

The plan announced on June 3, 1947, was officially known as the Mountbatten Plan. It was formulated by Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of India, after extensive consultations with Indian leaders. It laid down the definitive procedure for the transfer of power and the partition of British India.

Calcutta was the industrial, commercial, and financial heart of the Bengal province and a major seaport. While East Bengal (which became East Pakistan) produced most of the raw jute, the processing mills and export facilities were all in and around Calcutta. Its loss was a severe economic blow to the newly formed Pakistan.

The commission for each province had four members, two nominated by the Muslim League and two by the Congress. Since they were expected to be deadlocked, the rules stipulated that in the event of any disagreement, the final decision would be made by the chairman, Sir Cyril Radcliffe. This effectively gave him the sole authority over the final award.

Clement Attlee of the Labour Party was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951. It was his government that decided to grant independence to India and appointed Lord Mountbatten as the last Viceroy to oversee the process. Attlee's government was keen to withdraw from India quickly after World War II.

As per the 3rd June Plan, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met in two parts representing Muslim-majority and Hindu-majority districts. The part representing the Muslim-majority districts of East Bengal voted to join Pakistan. This region later became East Pakistan and, in 1971, the independent nation of Bangladesh.

The only tehsil of the Gurdaspur district that was awarded to Pakistan was Shakargarh. It was located across the Ravi river and was a Muslim-majority area. The rest of the district, including Gurdaspur and Batala tehsils (both Muslim-majority), was controversially given to India.

The Radcliffe Line became the international border between India and Pakistan (both its western and eastern wings) during the partition of India. Named after its architect, Sir Cyril Radcliffe, it is one of the most contentious and tragic border lines in modern history. It also demarcated the border for what would become Bangladesh.

While Jinnah became the Governor-General (Head of State), his trusted lieutenant, Liaquat Ali Khan, became the first Prime Minister (Head of Government). Liaquat Ali Khan was a central figure in the Pakistan movement and played a crucial role in establishing the new country's administrative and political framework.

Also known as the 'Dickie Bird Plan,' this was an early proposal by Mountbatten. It suggested that provinces could choose to become independent or form groups, effectively 'balkanizing' the subcontinent. Nehru vehemently rejected it, leading Mountbatten to quickly formulate the 3rd June Plan.

The award of most of the Jalandhar and Amritsar districts to India, particularly areas in the Bari Doab, was critical. This gave India control over the Upper Bari Doab Canal system and the headworks at Madhopur, which were vital for irrigation in Lahore and other parts of West Punjab.

Critics, including figures within the British administration and the Muslim League, alleged that Lord Mountbatten's close personal friendship with Jawaharlal Nehru unduly influenced his decisions. They claimed this led to several key decisions, including the boundary demarcation, favoring India at the expense of Pakistan.

Karachi was chosen as the first capital of Pakistan. It was the capital of Sindh province, had a major seaport, an international airport, and was relatively safe from the turmoil of the partition in Punjab. It served as the capital until 1959 when the capital was shifted to Rawalpindi temporarily and then to the newly built city of Islamabad.

The fundamental principle for dividing Punjab and Bengal was to separate the contiguous Muslim-majority areas from the contiguous non-Muslim majority areas. The Boundary Commission was tasked with demarcating these boundaries. However, other factors like 'economic considerations' and 'strategic importance' were also allowed, which created controversy.

The Muslim League nominated two eminent judges, Justice Din Muhammad and Justice Muhammad Munir, to represent its case for the Punjab boundary. Similarly, Congress nominated Justice Mehr Chand Mahajan and Justice Teja Singh. The predictable deadlock between these judges left the final decisions to Radcliffe.

The provincial government in NWFP was led by Dr. Khan Sahib, whose brother, Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Bacha Khan), was a close ally of Gandhi and the Congress. They demanded a third option of an independent 'Pashtunistan' in the referendum. When this was denied, they boycotted the vote, leading to an easy victory for the pro-Pakistan vote.

The division of financial assets (like the cash balances of the Reserve Bank of India) and military assets (from personnel to equipment) was extremely complex and fraught with disagreement. Pakistan frequently complained that India deliberately withheld its share of assets, severely hampering the new state's ability to function in its early days.

The Nawab of Junagadh, a princely state with a Hindu majority population, acceded to Pakistan in September 1947. India rejected this accession, arguing it violated the principle of territorial contiguity and the wishes of the population. India sent its army in and annexed the state after a plebiscite.

The partition triggered one of the largest and most violent mass migrations in human history. Millions of Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindus and Sikhs to India, amid widespread communal violence. The newly formed government of Pakistan was overwhelmed by the challenge of settling and caring for millions of destitute refugees.

Lord Louis Mountbatten was appointed by the British government in March 1947 as the last Viceroy of India. His primary task was to oversee the transfer of power to Indian hands by June 1948. He controversially brought the date forward to August 1947, a decision many believe exacerbated the chaos of partition.

British Balochistan's future was decided by its Shahi Jirga, a traditional assembly of tribal leaders and elders. On June 29, 1947, the Jirga, along with the non-official members of the Quetta Municipality, voted to join Pakistan. This did not include the princely state of Kalat, which acceded later.

There is significant historical evidence suggesting that a provisional boundary map showed the Ferozepur and Zira tehsils (containing the headworks) going to Pakistan. It is alleged that Lord Mountbatten intervened at the last minute to have Radcliffe alter the line in India's favor, a charge that remains a subject of intense historical debate.

In his landmark address to the Constituent Assembly, Jinnah laid out a vision of an inclusive and tolerant Pakistan. He famously stated, 'You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan.' This speech is considered a foundational document for Pakistan's state philosophy.

The Chittagong Hill Tracts had a 97% non-Muslim (mostly Buddhist) population and its leaders wanted to join India. However, Radcliffe awarded the area to Pakistan, arguing that it was economically integrated with the Chittagong district of East Bengal and was necessary for its viability. This decision was seen as a trade-off for awarding Gurdaspur to India.

Sir Evan Jenkins, the Governor of Punjab, had access to the details of the Radcliffe Award before its official announcement. It is alleged that he passed on this secret information to Indian leaders and used his influence to suggest last-minute changes that favored India, particularly regarding the canal headworks.

Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah used this term to express his deep disappointment with the partition plan that divided the key provinces of Punjab and Bengal. He accepted this 'truncated and moth-eaten' version of Pakistan as a compromise, rather than getting no state at all.

Sylhet was a Muslim-majority district in the otherwise Hindu-majority province of Assam. As per the 3rd June Plan, a referendum was held there in July 1947. The populace voted to join East Bengal, which was to become part of Pakistan.

The Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, a Muslim-majority state, hesitated to join either dominion. Following a tribal invasion from Pakistan, he acceded to India in October 1947. This led to the first Indo-Pakistani War (1947-48) as both countries vied for control of the strategic region.

The Nizam of Hyderabad, a large and prosperous princely state with a Hindu majority, wished to remain independent. In September 1948, India launched a military operation codenamed 'Operation Polo' and annexed the state by force. This action solidified Indian control over its territory.

The armed forces were to be divided roughly on a two-to-one basis between India and Pakistan, giving Pakistan about one-third (around 33%) of the personnel and movable military assets. The process of division was slow and contentious, putting Pakistan at a significant disadvantage in its early days.

The transfer of power ceremony in Karachi took place on August 14, 1947, which corresponded to the 27th night of Ramadan, a very auspicious night for Muslims. Therefore, Pakistan celebrates its independence on August 14th. India celebrates its independence on August 15th, the day Delhi had its ceremony.

Initially, the first governor of the province of East Bengal (East Pakistan) was a British administrator, Sir Frederick Chalmers Bourne. This was a transitional arrangement. He was later succeeded by Khawaja Nazimuddin, a prominent Bengali Muslim League leader.

Lahore and Amritsar, only 30 miles apart, were considered twin cities and were deeply interconnected economically and culturally. The Radcliffe Line placed Lahore in Pakistan and Amritsar in India, severing this historic connection and causing immense economic disruption for both cities, especially Lahore.

The Unionist Party was a dominant political force in Punjab for decades, representing the interests of cross-communal feudal landlords. Led by figures like Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan and later Khizar Hayat Tiwana, they opposed the Muslim League's demand for partition until the very end. The League's victory in the 1946 elections effectively ended their power.

The Instrument of Accession was the legal mechanism created under the Indian Independence Act of 1947. It allowed the rulers of the 565 princely states to choose whether to join the Dominion of India or the Dominion of Pakistan, thereby integrating their territories into one of the new countries.

While violence occurred in many regions, Punjab witnessed the most brutal and widespread massacres, forced conversions, and abductions. The province had a mixed population of Muslims, Sikhs, and Hindus, and the new border cut right through their communities, leading to an unprecedented humanitarian catastrophe.

The partition of Punjab was particularly brutal due to the violent conflict between Muslims and Sikhs. Both communities were deeply rooted in the land, with significant populations and holy sites on both sides of the new border. This led to organized militias and horrific violence as populations were forcibly displaced.

Fatima Jinnah, often revered as 'Māder-e-Millat' (Mother of the Nation), was her brother's closest confidante. She was a key figure in mobilizing women for the Pakistan movement and led the women's wing of the All-India Muslim League. After independence, she remained a prominent and respected figure in Pakistan.

After the partition, East Bengal became the province of East Pakistan. The historic city of Dhaka was designated as its provincial capital. It served as the political and administrative center of Pakistan's eastern wing until the creation of Bangladesh in 1971.

When Prime Minister Clement Attlee appointed Mountbatten, the directive was to complete the transfer of power by June 1948. However, upon arriving in India and assessing the volatile situation, Mountbatten made the unilateral and controversial decision to bring the date forward by almost ten months to August 1947.

A key argument made by Radcliffe for awarding the non-Muslim majority Chittagong Hill Tracts to Pakistan was its lack of viable land access from India. He argued that the area was economically dependent on and geographically accessible only through the Chittagong district of East Bengal. This reasoning was heavily contested by India.

Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy was the powerful leader of the Bengal Muslim League and the province's premier at the time of partition. His main political rival for decades was A.K. Fazlul Huq, a populist leader who headed the Krishak Praja Party and was famous for moving the Lahore Resolution in 1940.

Without the Gurdaspur district, India would have had no direct land route into the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. The award of this Muslim-majority district to India provided it with a vital strategic corridor. This is why the decision is seen by Pakistan as a deliberate move to enable India's future claim on Kashmir.

The Standstill Agreement was proposed to the princely states to maintain the status quo for an interim period. This meant that arrangements on matters like trade, communication, and defence that existed with British India would continue with the new Dominions of India or Pakistan while the ruler decided on accession.

The Muslim League, particularly under the leadership of Jogendra Nath Mandal (a scheduled caste leader allied with the League), believed that the oppressed scheduled castes would vote with the Muslims for Pakistan. They hoped this coalition would give them a majority in a referendum for Calcutta, but the referendum was never held.

Field Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck was the last Commander-in-Chief of the unified British Indian Army. He was appointed as the Supreme Commander to oversee the complex and sensitive process of dividing the army's personnel, units, and equipment between India and Pakistan.

Shortly after independence, in April 1948, India cut off water flow from the headworks under its control to the canals irrigating West Punjab in Pakistan. This created an immediate water and agricultural crisis, demonstrating Pakistan's vulnerability and leading to the long-standing Indus Waters Dispute.

The Indian Independence Act 1947 was the legislation passed by the British Parliament that officially ended British rule in India. It outlined the partition of British India into two independent dominions, India and Pakistan, and provided the legal framework for the transfer of power.

As the designated capital of the new nation, Karachi was the natural choice for hosting the first session of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. The assembly met in the Sindh Assembly Building on August 10 and 11, 1947, to elect its president and formally begin its work.

At the time of partition, the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir had a Muslim-majority population but was ruled by a Hindu Dogra king, Maharaja Hari Singh. This dichotomy of a Hindu ruler over a Muslim populace was a central factor in the conflict that erupted over the state's accession.

Before the final Radcliffe Award, a 'notional' or provisional partition was outlined in the 3rd June Plan. This was a temporary line based simply on the majority religion of each district. The Boundary Commission's job was to refine this notional line, taking into account 'other factors.'

Jogendra Nath Mandal, a leader of the scheduled castes from Bengal, was a staunch ally of the Muslim League. In recognition of his support and to project an inclusive image, Jinnah appointed him as the first Minister for Law and Labour in Pakistan's central cabinet.

While the partition of Bengal also involved significant violence and displacement, it was less cataclysmic than what occurred in Punjab. The presence of a joint government under Suhrawardy and the calming influence of Mahatma Gandhi, who was in Calcutta, are often cited as reasons for the comparatively lower level of bloodshed.

The Liaquat–Nehru Pact was signed in April 1950 to address the issue of minority rights and prevent a feared exodus from East Bengal. The pact was a bilateral agreement that guaranteed freedom of movement and protection for the religious minorities in both India and Pakistan.

The Objectives Resolution was passed on March 12, 1949. It was presented by Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan and is considered a foundational document in Pakistan's constitutional history. It blended Islamic principles with modern democratic ideals and declared that sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to Allah Almighty.

Sir Cyril Radcliffe arrived in India on July 8, 1947, and was expected to submit his report by August 15. This gave him and his commission a mere five weeks to draw the borders for two of India's largest provinces, a task of immense complexity that many believe required months, if not years.

East Bengal (East Pakistan) was the world's largest producer of raw jute, famously known as the 'golden fiber.' However, almost all the jute mills that processed this raw material into finished goods were located in and around Calcutta. The partition separated the raw material from the factories, crippling the industry.

The Constituent Assembly was tasked with two primary responsibilities. Its first job was to draft a new constitution for the country. Simultaneously, until that constitution was enacted, it was to function as the sovereign federal legislature, passing laws for the day-to-day governance of Pakistan.

The 1946 Cabinet Mission Plan was the final attempt by the British government to find a constitutional settlement that would maintain a united India. It proposed a three-tiered federal structure with a weak center. Though initially accepted by both the Congress and the Muslim League, it ultimately failed due to differing interpretations.

Lord Mountbatten received the final award around August 12 but decided to withhold its announcement until after the independence ceremonies on August 14/15. His stated reason was to avoid marring the celebrations, but critics argue this decision created a power vacuum and uncertainty on the ground, which contributed to the violence.

A Jirga is a traditional assembly of leaders or elders in Pashtun and Baloch societies that makes decisions by consensus. The 'Shahi Jirga' or Royal/Grand Jirga that decided Balochistan's fate was a special council of recognized tribal chiefs and sardars convened to represent the will of the people in the absence of a legislature.

The partition divided the British province of Punjab. The western part became the Punjab province of Pakistan, while the eastern part went to India. The territory for the modern capital, Islamabad, was later carved out from the Rawalpindi district of Pakistan's Punjab province.

The provided text explicitly states that the award shows that some important government officials were biased in favor of the Congress and wanted to harm Pakistan. This is a common sentiment in Pakistani historiography, which often points to the close relationship between Mountbatten and Nehru as evidence of this bias.

The Indian National Congress nominated two judges for the Punjab Boundary Commission: Justice Mehr Chand Mahajan and Justice Teja Singh. Justice Mahajan was a prominent judge who later became the Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir and played a key role in its accession to India.

The text highlights that despite the injustices of the award, Quaid-e-Azam showed 'tadabbur' (statesmanship/prudence). By accepting the award, he established Pakistan's reputation as a dignified nation that honors its commitments, even when they are unfavorable, thus avoiding further immediate conflict.

The Khan of Kalat, Ahmad Yar Khan, initially argued that his state had a unique treaty relationship with the British and was thus entitled to independence. Kalat declared its independence on August 15, 1947. However, it was surrounded by Pakistani territory and eventually acceded to Pakistan in March 1948.

While this is related to India, it's relevant context. Lord Mountbatten was India's first Governor-General, succeeded by C. Rajagopalachari. When India adopted its constitution in 1950 and became a republic, the office of Governor-General was replaced by President, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad became the first to hold that office.

For most of its history, the province was known as the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), a name given by the British. The text refers to it as 'Suba Sarhad.' In 2010, through the 18th Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan, its name was officially changed to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to reflect the identity of its majority Pashtun population.

The British believed that Radcliffe's complete lack of prior knowledge or experience in India would make him neutral and impartial. They thought someone with existing connections would be accused of bias by one side or the other. Ironically, this very lack of knowledge is now seen as a major flaw in the process.

The Muslim-majority district of Malda was another controversial case in Bengal. Unlike Gurdaspur, it was not given wholesale to either country. The Radcliffe Line partitioned the district, with the larger eastern part going to India and a smaller western portion going to East Pakistan.

The two-nation theory was the foundational ideology of the Pakistan Movement. It argued that Hindus and Muslims in British India were two distinct nations, each with its own culture, history, and values. This theory formed the primary justification for demanding a separate homeland, Pakistan.

Jogendra Nath Mandal was a prominent leader of the scheduled castes (Dalits) in Bengal. He believed his community's rights would be better protected in Pakistan than in a caste-dominated Hindu India. He allied with the Muslim League, supported Pakistan, and served as the country's first law and labor minister before becoming disillusioned and returning to India.

The night preceding August 14, 1947, was the 27th night of the holy month of Ramadan, known as Laylat al-Qadr (the Night of Power). This coincidence is seen as highly auspicious and a sign of divine blessing by many Pakistanis.

Lahore, Dhaka, and Karachi were all major cities that became part of West and East Pakistan respectively. Amritsar, a city of immense religious importance to Sikhs and with a large Hindu and Muslim population, was located just 30 miles from Lahore but was placed on the Indian side of the border by the Radcliffe Award.

The Line of Control (LoC) is not the internationally recognized border but a military control line. It marks the de facto boundary between the Indian-administered and Pakistani-administered parts of Jammu and Kashmir. It was originally established as the ceasefire line following the 1948 war.

The partition of India triggered one of the largest mass migrations in human history. Most estimates suggest that between 12 and 15 million people were uprooted from their homes, with some figures going as high as 20 million. It was a humanitarian disaster of epic proportions.

The structure of the commission, with two members from each side, led to a predictable deadlock. As per the rules of the commission, this deadlock meant that the chairman, Sir Cyril Radcliffe, was given the sole and final authority to make the decisions. This gave one man immense power over the fate of millions.

The Governor-General's House in Karachi, formerly the Government House during the British Raj, became the official residence and workplace of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. After his death, it continued to be the residence of subsequent Governors-General and Presidents until the capital shifted. It is now the Governor's House, Sindh.

This is a key event leading up to the creation of Pakistan. The All-India Muslim League was founded at the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference in Dhaka (then Dacca) on December 30, 1906. Its initial goal was to protect the political rights of Muslims in British India.

Sir Frederick Burrows was the Governor of Bengal during the tumultuous period leading up to partition, including the Great Calcutta Killings of 1946. Upon partition, he left, and the province was divided into West Bengal (India) and East Bengal (Pakistan), each with its new administration.

Karachi has always been a major port city in the province of Sindh. At the time of independence, it was the capital of Sindh. Its existing infrastructure and status as a federal territory made it the logical choice for the first capital of the new country of Pakistan.

The Muslim League's strategy for Calcutta was based on a political alliance. They hoped that the city's large Muslim population, combined with the significant number of oppressed scheduled castes (Dalits) led by their ally Jogendra Nath Mandal, would create a majority in favor of joining Pakistan.

This iconic line is from Jawaharlal Nehru's 'Tryst with Destiny' speech, delivered to the Indian Constituent Assembly on the night of August 14-15, 1947. It is one of the most famous speeches of the 20th century, heralding India's independence.

the Quaid as saying that Pakistan was 'bound to accept this award like a dignified nation.' This shows his commitment to international agreements and the rule of law. His stance was that despite the perceived injustice, the agreement had been made, and Pakistan would honor it to establish its credibility as a new sovereign state.